Yearly Archives: 2016

Never has it been so easy to acquire a breadth of information rapidly. At the same time there is a proliferation of misinformation and manipulative assertions. Information seekers must learn to be critical consumers. In A Field Guide to Lies: Critical Thinking in the Information Age Daniel J. Levitin suggests ways to evaluate claims that are made with numbers, words, and scientific logic. Levitin is the Dean of Social Science at the Minerva School and part of the faculty at UC Berkeley’s Hass School of Business. He is also the author of The Organized Mind.

Levitin warns that claims made with numbers often appear to the uncritical consumer as inarguably true. Critical consumers of numbers recognize that just because something is precise (i.e., specific) does not mean that it is accurate (i.e., true). He reminds his reader that statistics are created by people at every stage in the process. People determine what to count, how to count it, how to analyze what has been counted, and what to report. At each of these stages humans can intentionally or unintentionally manipulate numbers. Thus, critical consumers check whether statistics seem plausible using basic reasoning skills. For example, critical consumers know the differences among the various types of averages (i.e., mean, median, and mode), understand the relation among averages and range, and consider whether averages were calculated using a sensible sample. One can evaluate sampling by considering whether the sample was: 1) composed of sub-samples that ought not to be combined, 2) divided in such a way as to obscure a larger truth, and 3) representative. Levitin suggests that to be critical consumers of graphically presented data we ought to consider how axes are constructed and labeled (e.g., do they depict the full range of the data?). Critical consumers of numbers understand that correlations can be coincidental, explained by a third variable, or not practically important. They recognize that estimating a data point between existing pieces of data (interpolation) is not a perfect science and yet can often yield good estimates, while estimating a value outside the range of one’s data (extrapolation) can be riskier. Finally, and perhaps most critically, Levitin urges his readers not to be intimidated by numbers, not to accept them at face-value, and to test whether the numbers are plausible.

Levitin argues that humans learn from the stories and claims of other people. As such, in the information age, when it is easy for many people to make erroneous claims, we must be critical consumers of others’ words. Critical consumers of words evaluated alleged experts’ expertise. For example, they ask who determined that the expert was indeed an expert? Even if someone is an expert in one domain, the critical consumer questions whether the expert’s authority extends to the relevant domain at hand. The critical consumer recognizes that expertise is relative, experts can be wrong, and experts can disagree. Critical consumers know that some publications and websites are more reputable than others, and they seek out signs of the rigor with which claims in a given publication were verified or supported.

Science and the scientific method have proven invaluable in helping us determine what is or is not true about the world. Critical consumers must evaluate the way in which individuals discover truths and construct arguments. Levitin explains three different ways in which people typically come to understand how the world works. They can deduce by moving from general observations to specific predictions. They can induce by using a collection of facts to explain a general principle. Finally, as Sherlock Holmes often did, they can engage in abductive reasoning by using observations to construct a theory that accounts for those observations. Levitin enumerates several logical fallacies to help us become critical consumers who do not fall prey to those fallacies. For example, he helps the reader think about how to detect phenomena that may appear to be correlated. Levitin warns of the danger of not knowing what one does not know. In scientific and practical thinking, this can lead one to erroneous conclusions.

Levitin ends with four real-world instances in which he applied his suggestions about logical reasoning. He reminds us that we are fortunate to live in the information age because so much knowledge is available to us at all times. He argues that in exchange for the ease with which we can access information we must evaluate the information we encounter. Readers of A Field Guide to Lies will inoculate themselves from much of the deception they might encounter.

Levitin, D. J., author. (2016). A field guide to lies: Critical thinking in the information age. New York, New York: Dutton.

A uniquely actionable new book of learning sciences principles that can improve teaching and learning has come in the form of The ABC’s of How We Learn: 26 Scientifically Proven Approaches, How They Work, and When to Use Them. This book, inspired by a popular course at Stanford University entitled The Core Mechanics of Learning, is written by Daniel L. Schwartz, Dean of Stanford’s Graduate School of Education, Jessica M. Tsang an instructor at Stanford and a cognitive neuroscientist with expertise in effective classroom learning techniques, and Kristen P. Blair, a child development researcher and instructor at Stanford with expertise in technologies that support STEM learning.

The ABC’s of How We Learn starts from the premise that we all teach one another, and we all need to learn. As such, improving how we teach and learn, including tailoring strategies to our present circumstances is useful. The authors offer 26 alphabetized principles of learning and practices that support knowledge acquisition. The book does not profess to be a comprehensive account of every principle that can improve learning; rather, it offers several strategies that improve learning and the contexts in which each strategy might help. While presenting and integrating high level psychological and learning sciences theories and evidence, this text is accessible to any reader interested in improving his or her learning efficiency and experience. Especially helpful is the fact that the authors have grouped the 26 principles into a handful of broad issues that may be of concern to educators, such as how to support learners in building conceptual understanding, how to motivate learners, and how to promote learning through collaboration.

Each chapter, which corresponds to a learning principle represented by a letter of the alphabet, is explained in a way that makes the principle not only easily understandable, but also easy to implement. Each principle is defined, the theory accounting for the success of the principle is explained, uses of the principle are discussed, and the conditions under which it is most effective are enumerated. The ways in which the technique can be detrimental to learning are also outlined. Finally, examples of effective and ineffective implementation of the technique are included at the end of each chapter. After the full description of each of the 26 principles, the authors provide a very brief summary that users can reference to refresh themselves on the principles in the future.

The varied learning principles in this book highlight the many fruitful paths by which learning can take place. The book includes strategies that might be familiar and intuitive such as providing feedback, opportunities to observe experts, and opportunities for meaningful practice. Other strategies outlined include how to make learning exciting and preparing for learning by being well-rested. For example, in the chapter entitled “Z is for Zzzzzz…” the authors state that as productive scholars have long experienced and intuited and as the past 15 years of sleep research has shown, for deep learning to take place we need to get sufficient sleep. Sleep supports attentiveness during learning and memory consolidation after learning. The authors also include less well-known strategies for improving learning such as assuring students that they belong in the present learning setting, drawing on our five-senses and our bodies to learn abstract concepts, creating works of art and other sharable products, and engaging in imaginative play. Imaginative play, for example, helps students understand that one idea can represent another (e.g., a toy doll can represent a real person), and allows them to practice the norms of social interactions and the cognitive control that they require. It allows children to think independently and creatively.

Just as everyone needs to learn their ABC’s before they can read and learn from texts, every teacher and student can benefit from understanding the ABC’s of how we learn to improve their learning experience.

Schwartz, D. L., Tsang, J. M., & Blair, K. P. (2016). The ABCs of how we learn: 26 scientifically proven approaches, how they work, and when to use them. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Angela Duckworth, professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania and a 2013 MacArthur Genius Fellow, is driven by a desire to “use psychological science to help kids thrive.” Her new book, Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance can help parents, teachers, coaches do just that. In Duckworth’s lexicon grit is a unique combination of a passion for a pursuit and perseverance to achieve a goal related to that passion. She explains why grit is so important for achieving success, what the personal qualities are that contribute to grittiness, and how a culture can help make individuals gritty. Duckworth’s dad frequently reminded her as a child that she is “no genius,” but she argues that she and others can become a genius through the dogged pursuit of their passion.

Duckworth examined the personal qualities of national spelling bee champions, West Point Cadets, and U.S. urban public school students. She found that for each of these groups of young people the ability to persist after failure, a constant drive to improve, and a sense of personal direction were more critical for success than talent or aptitude. Yet, talent is alluring. We have a “naturalness bias”—a preference for people who seem effortlessly skilled in a domain. Duckworth warns however, that we should ward against an emphasis on talent. In the corporate world for example, terminating and promoting based on perceived talent (a difficult construct to measure) can undermine a company’s growth and lead to corruption.

Duckworth notes that success results from the accumulation of a multitude of minor accomplishments and consistency of commitment. With effort we become more skillful, and we can exercise our skills more productively. Talent alone cannot produce achievement; we achieve only through dedicated effort. That is, we must stick with problems and challenges that matter to us, set big picture as well as detailed goals, remain flexible in how we pursue those goals, rise from failure, and avoid spending energy on tasks that do not help us accomplish our goals.

Fortunately, we can cultivate grittiness. Indeed, more of the variance in grittiness among people is due to experience than genetics. Further, older people tend to be grittier than younger people, which may be due to grit developing with maturity.

Duckworth outlines the qualities of gritty individuals. They are passionate about their work, and that passion drives their success. Determining the object of one’s passion takes more time than we typically realize. Much like developing passionate feelings for a romantic partner, we should acknowledge that developing a passion for work may not occur through “love at first sight.” Also, like a partner, every job comes with its share of imperfections. People can reflect upon what matters to them and what they enjoy thinking about to determine their passion. Having a sense of purpose, or a sense that one’s work can contribute to a societal good, is another dimension of passion. Grittier people are more driven than less gritty people to seek meaning in their work and to help others.

Gritty people do not merely practice more than others; they practice in a more deliberative way by setting goals, focusing intently, seeking feedback, self-quizzing, and easily bouncing back from setbacks. Interestingly, gritty people feel as though practice is both harder and more enjoyable than do less gritty people. They believe that effort now can help them create a better future. They tend to have growth mindsets and believe they can change. For those of us working to cultivate our grit, setting routines can make engaging in consistent practice easier.

Duckworth offers tips for how to cultivate grit through parenting. “Tough love” is effective; we should give our children both freedom and limits, affection and rules. Parents should seek to be warm, respectful, and demanding. Getting kids involved in extracurricular activities is an effective way to promote grittiness. Extracurricular involvement, especially when it lasts for more than 2 years of high school, is associated with high grades and self-esteem, and it predicts college graduation and post-graduate earnings. Duckworth expresses concern about the income-based disparity in access to participation in extracurricular activities. Parents can also make grit part of their children’s identity, which will make it easier to be gritty. When an individual associates being gritty with membership in a group she cares about, she is more likely to see herself as gritty and act as such.

Fortunately we can all cultivate our grittiness. It seems to be one of the few personal characteristics that does not become less adaptive in large quantities. The pursuit of grit is really the pursuit of greatness. Duckworth argues convincingly that with a big dose of passion and perseverance (i.e., grit) we may all be able to be geniuses.

Duckworth, A. (2016). Grit: The power of passion and perseverance. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Schools may be vehicles for achieving our idealized society because they allow us to mold young people to bring about positive societal change. As such, we need to make careful choices about what and how we teach students. Dr. Joel Westheimer, University of Ottawa Research Chair in Democracy and Education, advances these ideas in What Kind of Citizen?: Educating Our Children for the Common Good.

Westheimer suggests several changes we should make in schools. Too often students perceive school as a struggle between the demands adults place on them and their desire to pursue their own passions. To improve students’ experiences schools should seek to be relevant to contemporary problems, offer new interpretations of old “facts”, change students’ perspectives, encourage question asking, embrace controversy, and push for critical thinking. Standardized tests and curricula often demand the opposite—e.g., one correct perspective, deference to authority, and recitation of facts—and yet it is the former set of skills that are likely to help us create a better citizenry, Westheimer argues.

Our push to align curricula and establish accountability has restricted teachers’ autonomy and creativity about what and how they teach. This has contributed to the mistrust of teachers. It reduces teachers’ freedom to act in the best interest of their students. This accountability push has limited students’ learning; rather than being taught a breadth of subjects and deep, critical thinking skills, students drown in reading and mathematics practice. We have become so obsessed with student test scores, according to Westheimer, that every decision about schools and students has come to be justified around those scores. That young kids are coming to school hungry and without access to quality food is not enough of a reason to feed them; we do it because it will increase their test score performance. Westheimer suggests that if we focused less on measuring reading and math skills, educators might create innovative measures of thinking skills that are critical for good citizens.

Westheimer outlines three types of citizens that citizenship education typically seeks to foster. One is the personally responsible citizen who obeys laws, gives to charity, acts conscientiously in his community, and treats others with integrity. The second is the participatory citizen who leads or participates in community organizations or activities with the hope that doing so will improve the community. The final type of citizen is social-justice oriented; she critically analyses structural problems in her community’s social, political, and economic order and thinks independently about causes of and solutions to the problems she sees. The type of citizen that schools try to cultivate is reflective of the society that the school community idealizes. Westheimer argues that the personally responsible citizen alone is not enough to bring about a desirable society; we need people who will get involved in the community and work on the root of problems within it. He gives examples of citizenship programs that effectively taught thinking skills and fostered citizenship skills aligned with local values. These hands-on initiatives have helped students appreciate that the point of learning is to be able to contribute. They helped students to be informed and curious, and they helped ward off our culture’s strong individualistic tendencies.

Westheimer concludes by countering seven common myths about education. Whereas some think that national standards raise the quality of education, educational experiences are contingent upon human connections that we are not currently able to measure well. While we too often mistake order and regimentation for learning, these qualities may not actually promote learning. They do, however, seem to be associated with behavioral problems in kids. Some educators believe that schools must be democratic to teach about democracy but, direct instruction may be equally effective. Some argue that knowledge must precede action; a reciprocal relation and oscillation between action and the pursuit of knowledge may be best. Some mistakenly believe that teaching critical thinking means not teaching facts. We should be teaching facts and basic skills, but do so in meaningful contexts so that students learn facts and how to think about them. Some argue that there is no place for politics in schools; actually, exposing student to a range of political viewpoints will give them an opportunity to think deeply and form their own opinions. Finally, some believe that community-based learning experiences must run smoothly for them to be a good learning experience. Westheimer argues that students benefit from learning about the struggle that goes into contributing to community work.

In Wertheimer’s vision, students who ask questions, consider multiple perspectives, appreciate the malleability of facts, and comfortably engage in controversial issues possess the citizenship skills that will help us shape a better society.

Westheimer, J. (2015). What kind of citizen?: Educating our children for the common good. New York: Teachers College Press.